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Inside Linux For example, for version 6.3 of SuSE Linux, the /etc/rc.d/boot file contains the following snippet to set the NIS domain name: # set hostname and domainname # test -n “$FQHOSTNAME” &&{ ECHO_RETURN=$rc_done echo -n Setting up hostname hostname ${FQHOSTNAME%%.*} || ECHO_RETURN=$rc_failed echo -e “$ECHO_RETURN” } test -n “$YP_DOMAINNAME” &&{ ECHO_RETURN=$rc_done echo -n Setting YP up domainname domainname $YP_DOMAINNAME || ECHO_RETURN=$rc_failed echo -e “$ECHO_RETURN” } || domainname “” # set and adjust the CMOS clock … After setting the hostname, the domain name is set to the appropriate value. Setting the domain name, even if you are not using NIS, will do no harm. For Red Hat Linux version 6.1, the domain name is set in the /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit startup file. The following is a snippet from the file showing the call to the domainname command. # Set the NIS domainname if [ -n “$NISDOMAIN” ]; then action “Setting NIS domainname $NISDOMAIN” domainname $NISDOMAIN else domainname “” fi … For the Slackware Linux distribution, the domain name is set in the /etc/rc.d/rc.inet2 startup file. The following is a snippet from the file showing the call to the domainname command: # # First, we must set the NIS domainname. NOTE: this is not # # necessarily the same as your DNS domainname, set in # # /etc/resolv.conf! The NIS domainname is the name of a domain # # served by your NIS server. # if [ -r /etc/defaultdomain ]; then nisdomainname `cat /etc/defaultdomain` fi # # Then, we start up ypbind. It will use broadcast to find a server. if [ -d /var/yp ] ; then echo -n ” ypbind” ${NET}/ypbind fi # # If you are the NIS master server for the NIS domain, then # # you must run rpc.yppasswdd, which is the RPC server that # # lets users change their passwords. if [ -x ${NET}/rpc.yppasswdd ]; then echo -n ” yppasswdd” ${NET}/rpc.yppasswdd fi … For TurboLinux version 4.0, the domain name is set in the /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit startup file (as in Red Hat). The following is a snippet from the file showing the call to the domainname command: # Set the NIS domain name if [ -n “$NISDOMAIN” ]; then domainname $NISDOMAIN else domainname “” fi … Now that the domain name has been established for the server, the next step is to validate the various administrative files. For every file, examine each entry for validity and remove any unwanted or expired entries. It is imperative that you have only the entries that your system will require. Doing this will ensure that the NIS map files contain only valid information. This will also ensure that your system is less susceptible to security violations. Some of the files that you should visit and validate are shown in Table 11.1. page 200
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Inside Linux In organizations that require subdepartmental organization, you may need to partition the NIS domains accordingly. For example, within the exploration department might be the oil exploration and natural gas exploration subdepartments. If the breadth of machines warrants the additional domains, you might partition NIS domains using oil.exploration and gas.exploration as domain names. Notice the use of dotted notation for the subcategory naming. NOTE Be sure to refrain from choosing an NIS domain name that matches the DNS domain name. Using the same name can create a security risk. NIS Server Allocation No hard-and-fast rules determine the number of NIS servers to implement; there are many factors to consider. The physical network structure can be a determining factor, as well as the amount of predicted NIS traffic. Machine hardware can play into the factoring because many machines run much slower than others. User profiles can play into the NIS server partitioning. A user profile, in this sense, is the type of user and the type of (computer) work performed. For example, a user who spends a lot of time at the console utilizing command-line utilities to perform work consumes more NIS resources than a user working with a spreadsheet or word processor. Given that the server and client hardware are on equal footing, the ratio can be in the neighborhood of one server per 30 clients. If the client hardware is faster, increase the number of NIS servers (slave servers). If the server hardware is faster, you might bump the ratio to one server per 40 clients. If you have determined that you need only one NIS server, you should be sure you implement two NIS servers. One server will be the master server and the other will be a slave server. Using two machines provides the system with a backup in case the master server fails for some reason. Some administrators say, “For every master server, there shall be a slave server.” Configuring NIS Configuring NIS is a simple task. Organization is the key to success when setting up the NIS servers and NIS clients. This section covers the tasks required to enable an NIS master server, NIS slave server, and NIS client. For demonstration purposes, the text assumes that only one domain name will be used for the NIS system. Configuring the NIS Master Server For this chapter, it is assumed that you have partitioned your domain names, that you have the available NIS server machines, and that there will be only one NIS server and one NIS domain. Your first task is to name the NIS domain on the NIS server. The domainname command is used to set the domain name for the selected NIS server. The following dialog demonstrates the use for the domainname command: stimpy $ domainname admin stimpy $ On some Linux distributions, the nisdomainname and ypdomainname commands are synonymous with the domainname command. In some cases, these two commands are aliases for the domainname command. Invoking the domainname command without a name (no argument) will reveal the current domain name being used. Some distributions of Linux will execute the domainname command at system startup. You can check the /etc/rc.d directory for the startup files containing calls to the domainname command. page 199
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Inside Linux The master server sits at the top of the hierarchy. The master owns the maps. Branching from the master are slave servers. These slaves help to relieve the load from the master. NIS clients can request NIS information without having to worry about whether to communicate with a master server or slave server. The master server is responsible for all map updates and distribution to slaves. If a change has taken effect, the server is responsible for ensuring that all slaves are updated. Although an NIS slave server can service a request from an NIS client, the slave server’s maps are read only; the slave can not update its maps. This ensures that map modifications happen only at the master server. A simple example demonstrates the concepts of the NIS system. The /etc/passwd file should be familiar to most Linux users, especially those people playing the role of administrator. Remember that the /etc/passwd file is used to contain usernames and their associated passwords. (The exceptions are systems that utilize shadow passwords. In this configuration, the password is actually stored in the /etc/shadow file). Information besides the username and password is contained in the /etc/passwd file, but I am trying to keep the example simple. Any client that requires username verification will normally read from the /etc/passwd file. If the system is executing NIS, the request goes to the NIS server for the desired information. It does not matter whether the request is handled by the master server or a slave server. The information is gathered from the passwd map and sent back to the client. What about adding a new user, you ask? Or you might need to delete a user or modify the settings for a user. At the master server, you modify the passwd file as required. After you have made the necessary changes, you rebuild the NIS maps. Remember, all this happens at the master server. After the maps have been updated, they must be distributed to the slave servers. This happens rather quickly and seamlessly. Structuring NIS Do not burden yourself with an NIS system in which the configuration data is simple and fairly static. In other words, it might be a waste of resources to use NIS to maintain maps of information that scarcely change. For example, not much advantage exists in using NIS to maintain the /etc/shells or /etc/protocols files. When thinking about the implementation of NIS, you need to consider how information is partitioned within the network. This analysis must be done from an organizational level, rather than from the scope of network itself. Think about how the organization is partitioned. Are the departments intertwined (physically or logically) within the organization, or are they separate? It is probably safe to say that most organizations logically and physically partition their departments. The accounting department may occupy the northwest corner of the floor or might occupy three floors of the organization’s building. NIS provides the concept and implementation of what is called a domain. An NIS domain follows the concept of a network domain - it is used to logically group related units. If your organization is large, implementing NIS domains for organizational units probably makes sense. For example, you might dedicate an NIS domain for the accounting department, a domain for the exploration department, and a domain for the research department. In actuality, an NIS domain declares and maintains a set of NIS maps. NIS clients are not precluded from obtaining information from NIS servers outside their domain. However, it makes more sense to partition the domains so that network traffic is minimized. For example, NIS clients in the exploration domain communicate primarily with NIS servers in the exploration (NIS) domain. If only four exploration engineers (and computers) are within the department, you should not create an NIS domain because the resources and maintenance effort do not offset the advantages of using NIS. Naming NIS Domains Establishing NIS domain names is a simple task. Some administrators find themselves wanting to be creative with respect to names. Although this might be cute when establishing hostnames, the same might not make sense for NIS domain names. If you have decided that the exploration department requires its own NIS domain, it probably does not make sense to use the name “ipswitch” for the domain name. No sense of association exists with the two organizational entities. Using the name “exploration” for the domain name makes sense. Even the name “explore” makes more sense than “ipswitch.” page 198
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Inside Linux /etc/networks. Network addresses /etc/passwd. Provides user access information /etc/protocols. Provides network protocol and number mappings /etc/rpc. Provides RPC numbers /etc/services. Provides port number to TCP/IP mappings You are not required to set NIS to support all these files. It is up to you to decide which files should be maintained using NIS. Additionally, you can use NIS to maintain information in other files. The general rule is to use NIS for storing information that has no host-specific data. Notice that the /etc/fstab file is not mentioned in the previous bulleted list. Why? This is because the /etc/fstab file contains information about filesystems and mount points found on hosts within a network. This file is specific to the host that it is associated with. It would be difficult to maintain filesystem information with NIS. This should not preclude you, however, from using NIS for storage and identification of general data. Beginning with the next section, we begin our journey into the concepts, installation, and usage of NIS. The NIS Model NIS is modeled after the client/server model. The client/server model has shown itself to be an efficient and well-proven solution for many software systems. The request-and-response concept is well documented and understood. Software systems built on the client/server can be built rather quickly and can be tuned for peak efficiency. The host portion of NIS maintains the data files, which are called maps. As can be expected, the client portion of the NIS system is the requester. The NIS system is built with a hierarchical structure of servers. This helps ensure that the system is scalable and that the workload can be distributed with ease. Figure 11.1 provides us with a graphical representation of NIS. Figure 11.1. NIS system structure. page 197
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Inside Linux Chapter 11. Network Information Service (NIS) The Network Information Service (NIS) provides the functionality of a distributed database system to contain various configuration files. Normally, these configuration files are stored locally and must be propagated to other machines as changes are made. A common use, for example, is to store the /etc/password file in NIS and provide a global access point for all hosts on the network. This chapter explains what it takes to get NIS up and running, including installation and configuration. Overview The popularity of a distributed computing environment is growing rapidly. This type of network configuration presents many challenges. One challenge is the maintenance and distribution of shared configuration files. Some examples of these are the /etc/passwd, /etc/group, and /etc/hosts files. The challenge is not about the modification and upkeep of these files, but rather the distribution of the information contained in these files. Adding a single user to the system is not much of a chore, but making that new information available to other hosts on the network could take some effort. Consistency is the key to a properly managed network. Any changes made to a system configuration file, /etc/passwd for example, must be consistently communicated to all hosts. Every day, Linux systems are being integrated into the networks of organizations of every size and shape. In some cases, Linux systems are being used as application and Web servers, DNS servers, and workstations. Because of this, it is important that Linux systems become seamless members of an organization’s network. The NIS addresses the challenges of dealing with a distributed computing network - namely, that of distributing network configuration files such as /etc/passwd. Because Linux is becoming an integral part of most organizational networks, it is important that Linux provide NIS functionality to those network communities. The system that predated NIS was YP, or Yellow Pages, from Sun. The name was changed to NIS because British Telecom PLC maintains a registered trademark in the United Kingdom for the name “Yellow Pages.” Much of the terminology you will encounter, such as ypserv and ypbind, were carried forward to NIS. As mentioned previously, NIS consists of a distributed database that contains information normally stored in host files, such as the /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow, /etc/group, and /etc/host files. NIS provides for a centralized facility for managing this information. You maintain the information at one central server, the NIS server. Other hosts using NIS on the network obtain the information stored at the NIS server on an as-needed basis. Some of the common files that are handled by NIS are shown in the following list: /etc/aliases. Aliases and mailing lists for the mail system /etc/bootparams. Provides information about diskless nodes /etc/ethers. Provides MAC to IP mappings /etc/group. Provides group access information /etc/hosts. Provides IP address to hostname mappings /etc/netgroup. Network group definitions used by NIS /etc/netmasks. IP network masks page 196
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Inside Linux E 3600 IN A 192.203.230.10 ;Cl=0 F 3600 IN A 192.5.5.241 ;Cl=0 G 3600 IN A 192.112.36.4 ;Cl=0 H 3600 IN A 128.63.2.53 ;Cl=0 I 3600 IN A 192.36.148.17 ;Cl=0 J 3600 IN A 198.41.0.10 ;Cl=0 bash-2.02# After named is started, you can check out its operation by using the nslookup command. The nslookup command is used to query Internet domain names. At a command prompt, simply execute nslookup. After nslookup starts, it will display its command prompt: >. If you need help, type help at the nslookup prompt and help text will be displayed. The following dialog demonstrates a domain name lookup: > www.whitehouse.gov Server: some.dnsserver.com Address: 665.122.864.244 Non-authoritative answer: Name: www.whitehouse.gov Addresses: 198.137.240.91, 198.137.240.92 > The Non-authoritative answer: text with the response indicates that the DNS found the domain name in the cache, rather than going out on the Internet and querying servers directly. You have been running nslookup in interactive mode. The nslookup command offers a command prompt whereby you submit commands and receive feedback. You can continue this dialog until you are finished. When you are finished using nslookup, you can use the exit command to quit the program and return to the shell prompt. The nslookup command can also be executed in noninteractive mode. In noninteractive mode, you simply invoke nslookup with required parameters, and nslookup will return information to the standard output. Check the man page for nslookup for complete details about the command. To further assist in debugging named, you can examine the /var/log/ messages (or /usr/adm/messages) file to check for any problems. If you invoke named manually (for testing), you can execute the tail command against the /var/log/messages file. The following dialog demonstrates this: bash-2.02# ndc start Name Server Started bash-2.02# tail -3 /var/log/messages Aug 19 23:33:06 stimpy named[851]: starting Aug 19 23:33:06 stimpy named[851]: cache zone “” loaded (serial 0) Aug 19 23:33:06 stimpy named[852]: Ready to answer queries. bash-2.02# Notice that we instructed the tail command to print only the last three lines in the file. In addition to checking the /var/log/messages, you can check the debug file named /var/tmp/named.run (on newer Linux systems). Summary In this chapter, we explored the use of the Domain Name Service (DNS). You learned that DNS is used to map hostnames to Internet addresses. This enables you to type logical names such as http://www.whitehouse.gov, instead of the actual address in dotted notation, as in 198.137.240.91. The setup and configuration of DNS was covered next. You can avoid the hassle of setting up your own DNS by using your ISP’s DNS servers, if available. Otherwise, the information provided in the “DNS Configuration” section should get you up and running. Various configuration files and environment variables must be checked to be sure they are properly set - these items were covered in detail. The name server, named, was covered next. The details of configuring named’s configuration files and starting up the daemon were covered. The daemon can be started in one of two ways. You can start it directly, supplying required arguments, or you can use ndc, the control interface to the named daemon. Configuration files, such as /etc/named.boot, were also covered. Finally, we discussed the details of starting the named daemon and communicating with it. Communicating with the named daemon by using signals allows us to query its status and manipulate the running daemon. For example, you can send named the SIGTERM signal, and the server will dump the contents of the primary and secondary database files. page 195
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Inside Linux G 3600 IN A 142.412.36.4 ;Cl=0 H 3600 IN A 198.663.2.53 ;Cl=0 I 3600 IN A 162.636.148.17 ;Cl=0 J 3600 IN A 168.414.10.100 ;Cl=0 bash-2.02# The ndc command provides a simplified interface to the named daemon. You can achieve the same results utilizing signals to named. Let’s take a look how we can do this. You utilize the kill command to transmit a signal to the daemon. The kill command can be used to send a specified signal to any Linux process, not just to named. You should always specify the signal to send. If you do not specify a signal, kill will send the TERM signal by default. Table 10.4 shows the signals that can be sent to the named daemon. Table 10.4. Signals to the named Command Signal Description SIGHUP Sending this signal causes named to read the named.boot file and then reload the database. SIGINT If named gets this signal, it will dump the current database and cache to /var/tmp/named_dump.db. This is the same as the dumpdb option to ndc. SIGIOT This signal is synonymous with the ndc stats option. Statistical data is dumped into the /var/tmp/named.stats file (data is appended). SIGSYS If the server is compiled with profiling, a profiling dump is made to the /var/tmp directory. SIGTERM This signal causes the server to dump the contents of the primary and secondary database files. Useful if you want to save modified data at shutdown. SIGUSR1 Turns on debugging and increments the debug level. This is the same as the trace option to the ndc command. SIGUSR2 This is the same as the notrace option to the ndc command. This signal turns off debugging. SIGWINCH This signal toggles the logging of incoming queries using the syslog facility. This signal is synonymous with the querylog option to ndc. The following dialog demonstrates sending the SIGINT signal to the daemon. Before you can send the signal, however, you must first get the process ID for the named process. We show the results of the signal by displaying the contents of the /var/tmp/named_dump.db file. bash-2.02# ps -ax | grep named 3796 ? S 0:00 named bash-2.02# kill -SIGINT 3796 bash-2.02# cat /var/tmp/named_dump.db ; Dumped at Thu Jul 15 17:21:13 1999 ;; ++zone table++ ;; –zone table– ; — Cache & Data — ; — Hints — $ORIGIN . . 3600 IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 $ORIGIN ROOT-SERVERS.NET. K 3600 IN A 198.41.0.11 ;Cl=0 L 3600 IN A 198.32.64.12 ;Cl=0 A 3600 IN A 198.41.0.4 ;Cl=0 M 3600 IN A 198.32.65.12 ;Cl=0 B 3600 IN A 128.9.0.107 ;Cl=0 C 3600 IN A 192.33.4.12 ;Cl=0 D 3600 IN A 128.8.10.90 ;Cl=0 page 194
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Inside Linux Table 10.3. Options for the ndc Command Option Description status This option displays the status of named as displayed by the ps command. dumpdb This option forces named to dump the current database and the cache to the /var/tmp/named_dump.db file. reload This option forces named to verify serial numbers for primary and secondary zones and then to reload any that have changed. stats This option causes named to do a dump of its statistics to the /var/tmp/named.stats file. trace Executing this option invokes named to increment the tracing level by one. If the tracing level is nonzero, trace information is written to the /var/tmp/named.run file. More detailed tracing information is provided by higher tracing levels. notrace This option effectively causes named to reset the tracing level to zero. This results in the closing of the /var/tmp/named.run file. querylog This option invokes named to toggle the query logging feature on or off. If on, every query will be logged with the syslog facility. Be cautious because this option causes the log files to increase significantly (and quickly). start This option starts up the named daemon. stop This option stops named. restart This option causes named to be killed and restarted. The following dialog demonstrates the use of ndc to start up the named daemon and then check on its status: bash-2.02# ndc start Name Server Started bash-2.02# ndc status 3595 ? S 0:00 named bash-2.02# The following dialog shows the result of the dumpdb option to ndc and the contents of the resultant /var/tmp/named_dump.db file. Note that the IP addresses shown have been changed to protect the innocent. bash-2.02# ndc dumpdb Dumping Database bash-2.02# cat /var/tmp/named_dump.db ; Dumped at Thu Jul 15 16:40:23 1999 ;; ++zone table++ ;; –zone table-; Note: Cr=(auth,answer,addtnl,cache) tag only shown for non-auth RR’s ; Note: NT=milliseconds for any A RR which we’ve used as a nameserver ; — Cache & Data –; — Hints –$ ORIGIN . . 3600 IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 3600 IN NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. ;Cl=0 $ORIGIN ROOT-SERVERS.NET. K 3600 IN A 198.356.0.11 ;Cl=0 L 3600 IN A 18.32.412.12 ;Cl=0 A 3600 IN A 212.422.10.4 ;Cl=0 M 3600 IN A 164.320.164.12 ;Cl=0 B 3600 IN A 164.98.10.107 ;Cl=0 C 3600 IN A 192.33.14.12 ;Cl=0 D 3600 IN A 128.8.100.90 ;Cl=0 E 3600 IN A 142.403.230.10 ;Cl=0 F 3600 IN A 142.16.16.441 ;Cl=0 page 193
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Inside Linux G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.112.36.4 ; formerly AOS.ARL.ARMY.MIL . 3600000 NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.63.2.53 ; formerly NIC.NORDU.NET . 3600000 NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.36.148.17 ; temporarily housed at NSI (InterNIC) . 3600000 NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.41.0.10 ; temporarily housed at NSI (InterNIC) . 3600000 NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.41.0.11 ; temporarily housed at ISI (IANA) . 3600000 NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.32.64.12 ; temporarily housed at ISI (IANA) . 3600000 NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.32.65.12 ; End of File You are ready to start named and see how things run. In the next section, you see how to start and communicate with named. Starting and Talking to named As mentioned earlier in this chapter, named can be started in one of two ways. The daemon can be started directly, using its executable name. The second way to invoke named is by use of ndc. This section reviews these two methods of booting named. It also explores the use of signals to manipulate named when it is running. When named is started without any arguments, the daemon first reads its configuration file (/etc/named.boot), reads any other configuration file(s) specified, and then begins listening for queries. The following is the usage for named: named [-d debuglevel] [-p port#[/localport#] ] [{-b} bootfile] [-q] [-r] Various arguments can be specified to named. Table 10.2 describes the available arguments to named: Table 10.2. Options for Starting named Option Description -b Use this option to specify a boot configuration file to read. -d Use this option to print debugging information. A number that is specified after the d switch determines the level of messages generated. -p This option tells named to use nonstandard port numbers. The getservbyname will return the default port number. Two port numbers, separated by a slash, can be specified. The first port is used when contacting remote servers. The second argument is the service port for the local instance of named. -q Use this option to trace all incoming queries. -r This option turns off recursion for the server. Responses come only from primary or secondary zones. The options no-recursion option in the /etc/named.boot file is the preferred method of turning off recursion over this command-line option. You can also start the named daemon using the ndc executable. The ndc command is the control interface to the named daemon. The ndc command enables you to perform administrative tasks interactively with named, providing feedback during debugging. You can specify a number of options to ndc. Table 10.3 shows the options. page 192
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Inside Linux For the primary option, the second argument specifies the filename containing the authoritative data for the zone specified by the first argument. If you refer to the previous sample, /etc/named.boot, the first primary option specifies that the my.domain.file contains the authoritative data for the http://my.domain.edu domain. A secondary server will attempt to retrieve authoritative data from the primary server, rather than getting the data from files. For this reason, it is important that at least one primary server must be given. A server will continue to contact each server until it receives the zone database. After this happens, the data is stored in the backup file (the third argument). The zone data is retrieved from the backup if no primary server responds. The slave option exists only for backward compatibility. The slave option is identical to the options, forward-only directive to the named daemon. This option causes a server to query only the servers in the forwarders list. Machines that do not have access to the Internet will be set up as slaves. The following options are also available but, unlike the six options previously covered, are not considered minimally required. Let’s take a quick look at some of the other available options. The include option specifies that the cited (include) file should be processed as though the file’s contents were embedded at the point of the include option. This is similar to the #include directive as used in the C and C++ languages. The include option expects a single argument -the filename to include. The limit option is used to alter the internal limits of BIND. Values for the limit argument can be specified as either kilobytes (k), megabytes (m), or gigabytes (g). For example, a number followed by the letter m specifies the limit in megabytes. The datasize argument specifies the size of the process data that is controlled by the Linux kernel. The transfers-in argument specifies the maximum number of named-xfer subprocesses that BIND will invoke and maintain. The transfers-per-ns argument designates the maximum amount of zone transfers that can be introduced to a remote name server. The maximum number of file descriptors available to BIND is specified with the files argument. The sortlist option specifies networks that are favored or other networks. Queries for host addresses from local network hosts can expect responses in the following order: local network addresses, sort list addresses, and finally, other addresses. The check-names option, when set, tells BIND to check for names in primary or secondary zone files. BIND will also check in response messages during recursion. If the check is unsuccessful, BIND generates one of three failures. If a zone cannot be loaded or the response failed caching, a fail message is generated. If a warn is generated, an entry is written to the system log files. The third type, ignore, tells BIND to disregard an invalid name and process it normally. The following is a sample /var/named/root.cache file: ; This file holds the information on root name servers needed to ; initialize cache of Internet domain name servers ; formerly NS.INTERNIC.NET . 3600000 IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.41.0.4 ; formerly NS1.ISI.EDU . 3600000 NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.9.0.107 ; formerly C.PSI.NET . 3600000 NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.33.4.12 ; formerly TERP.UMD.EDU . 3600000 NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.8.10.90 ; formerly NS.NASA.GOV . 3600000 NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.203.230.10 ; formerly NS.ISC.ORG . 3600000 NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.5.5.241 ; formerly NS.NIC.DDN.MIL . 3600000 NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. page 191
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